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Empires of Coal: Fueling China’s Entry into the Modern World Order, 1860-1920 (Studies of the Weatherhead East Asian Institute, Columbia University)

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From 1868–1872, German geologist Ferdinand von Richthofen went on an expedition to China. His reports on what he found there would turn into Western interest in China from the land of porcelain and tea to a repository of immense coal reserves. By the 1890s, European and American powers and the Qing state and local elites battled for regulate over the rights to these valuable mineral deposits. As coal went from a useful commodity to the crucial fuel of industrialization, this vast natural resource would turn out integral to the struggle for political regulate of China. Geology served both as the handmaiden to European imperialism and the rallying point of Chinese resistance to Western encroachment. Within the late nineteenth century both foreign powers and the Chinese viewed regulate over mineral resources as the important thing to modernization and industrialization. When the first China Geological Survey started work Within the 1910s, conceptions of natural resources had already shifted, and the Qing state expanded its regulate over mining rights, setting the precedent for the subsequent Republican and People’s Republic of China regimes. In Empires of Coal, Shellen Xiao Wu argues that the changes specific to the late Qing were a part of global trends Within the nineteenth century, when the upward push of science and industrialization destabilized global systems and caused widespread unrest and the toppling of ruling regimes all over the world.

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